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Carroll, L., & Gonzalez, M. L. (2014). Out of place: Racial stereotypes and the ecology of frisks and searches following traffic stops. Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 51(5), 559-584.

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Objectives: Test hypotheses drawn from Smith and Alpert's social conditioning theory that explains biased policing as the result of implicit…

Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2011). Politiewaardering: Trends en achtergronden. [Police appreciation: Trends and backgrounds]. The Hague: Statistics Netherlands.

Report by Statistics Netherlands on police appreciation in the public. Report finds that appreciation of the police in the general…

Constantinou, A. G. (2016). “Demystifying” the police: a participant observation study of police stops (and searches). International journal of comparative and applied criminal justice, 40(1), 79-99.

Cyprus, police discretion, Police Powers, suspicion, traffic stops

Police are empowered by law to stop and search vehicles and their occupants, once reasonable grounds for suspicion come into…

Avdija, A. (2014). Police Stop-and-Frisk Practices: An Examination of Factors That Affect Officers’ Decisions to Initiate a Stop-and-Frisk Police Procedure. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 16(1), 26-35.

high-crime areas, proactive policing, racialised policing, stop-and-frisk

The purpose of this research is to examine the factors that affect an officer's decision to initiate a stop-and-frisk procedure.…

Barnum, C., & Perfetti, R. (2010). Race-Sensitive Choices by Police Officers in Traffic Stop Encounters. Police Quarterly, 13(2), 180-208.

baseline, cognitive activity, cognitive bias, discrimination, disproportionality, disproportionate, minority, officer, police, race, racial, racial profiling, stereotyping, traffic analysis

This study introduces a statistical estimator that can be used to examine disproportionate traffic stop behavior of police officers. This…

Belina, Bernd & Svenja Keitzel (2018): Racial Profiling. Kriminologisches Journal 50(1): 18-24.

Institutional racism, Justice, Law, police, racial profiling

Like no other field of science critical criminology is predestined to analyze and criticize racial profiling. This paper identifies three…

Belur, J. (2011). Police stop and search in India: Mumbai nakabandi. Policing and Society, 21(4), 420-431.

Mumbai police; nakabandi; stop and search; India

The Indian police have wide discretionary powers of stop and search. One peculiar and regular manifestation of this power is…

Blalock, G., DeVaro, J., Leventhal, S., & Simon, D. H. (2011). Gender bias in power relationships: evidence from police traffic stops. Applied Economics, 43(29), 4469-4485.

bias, citations, Gender, police, power, tickets

We test for the existence of gender bias in power relationships. Speci cally, we examine whether police offcers are less…

Alpert, Geoffrey P., John M. MacDonald, and Roger G. Dunham. “Police suspicion and discretionary decision making during citizen stops.” Criminology 43.2 (2005): 407-434.

citizen stops, Police decision making, police suspicion

This study examines the influence of racial, demographic and situational variables on types of police suspicion and the ancillary decision…

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